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         MindNet Journal - Vol. 1, No. 61b * [Part 2 of 2 parts]
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         V E R I C O M M / MindNet         "Quid veritas est?"
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    The views and opinions expressed below are not necessarily the
    views and opinions of VERICOMM, MindNet, or the editors unless
    otherwise noted.

    Permission is given to reproduce and redistribute, for
    non-commercial purposes only, provided this information and the
    copy remain intact and unedited.

    Editor: Mike Coyle

    Assistant Editor: Rick Lawler

    Research: Darrell Bross

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    [Continued from part 1]

    3.11.6.2 Effects Due to Absorbed Energy

       The other major category of potential health effects is
    associated with energy absorbed by the body when exposed to
    RFR. Generally, energy absorption is related to frequency. When
    frequency is such that the incident wavelength is much smaller
    than the size of the exposed subject, there is poor penetration
    and energy is deposited largely on the surface of the subject
    (Cahill and Elder 1984; Polk and Postow 1986). For humans, that
    corresponds to frequencies greater than about 5,000 MHz. When the
    incident wavelength and the subject are the same order of
    magnitude, resonance occurs and maximum energy is absorbed. The
    resonant frequency varies depending on thc size of the human
    body and ranges from about 35 MHz for a grounded adult 5 feet 9
    inches tall to about 200 MHz for an ungrounded infant. When the
    wavelength is much greater than the subject's size, the
    absorptive coupling is inefficient and little energy is absorbed.
    This occurs in humans at frequencies lower than about 1 MHz, and
    includes the GWEN LF frequency (150 to 175 kHz) with wavelengths
    about 1,000 times greater than the size of humans. RFR from the
    GWEN UHF antennae (/25 to 400 Mhz) falls in a range just above
    resonant frequencies (see section 4.11.1.2).
       The accepted measure of RF absorption is the SAR, which is
    the mass-normalized rate of energy absorption in watts per
    kilogram (W/kg). The SAR depends on the dielectric composition
    and shape of the subject, its orientation with respect to the RF
    field, and the complexity of the radiation, as well as on the
    size of the subject relative to the wavelength. The SAR can be
    estimated by combining the frequency and power density of the RF
    field with the size and dielectric property of the subject
    exposed to the field (Cahill and Elder 1984). Such calculations
    can be performed for humans exposed to the RFR from GWEN. For an
    average man, the _Radio_Frequency_Radiation_Dosimetry_Handbook_
    (Durney et al. 1978) indicates that the maximum average SAR at
    the GWEN LF band would be approximately 0.0000006 W/kg per
    1 mW/cm2, occurring when the long axis of the body was parallel
    to the E-field polarization. When the body was perpendicular to
    the E-field, the average SAR would decrease by a factor of
    approximately 30.
       The maximum value of the E-field from the GWEN LF transmitter
    outside the 4-foot fence would be 50 V/m (see section 4.11.1.1).
    This is equivalent to approximately 0.66 mw/cm2 (assuming a
    plane wave). Therefore, the maximum average SAR in a human
    standing in an E-field of intensity 50 V/m would be
    approximately 0.0000004 W/kg, assuming continuous RF emission.
    Since GWEN broadcasts LF transmissions with a 28-percent duty
    cycle, the maximum average SAR at the 4-foot fence would be
    approximately 0.0000001  W/kg.
       The maximum average SAR associated with GWEN UHF exposure can
    be calculated in a similar fashion. At the frequency band used
    for GWEN UHF transmissions, the maximum average SAR would be
    0.1 W/kg per 1 mW/cm2 (Durney et al. 1978). Since the maximum
    exposure to GWEN UHF would be 0.001 mW/cm2 for a 40 percent duty
    cycle (see section 4.11.1.2), the maximum average SAR at a GWEN
    station due to UHF exposure would be 0.0001 W/kg.
       A number of so-called "nonthermal" effects have been described
    in the scientific literature in connection with RFR exposure of
    laboratory animals and animal tissue at levels equal to or less
    than 0.4 W/kg (EPA 1986). These effects, involving the cellular,
    hematologic, reproductive, nervous systems, and others, are
    summarized in a review by Cahill and Elder (1984). The
    significance of these effects for public health is not clear,
    partly because the mechanisms responsible for them are not known.
    Some results are from single studies and have not yet been
    verified by duplication (EPA 1986). In some cases, there are
    conflicting results as to whether a given effect even occurs. At
    this time, it is not yet clear whether low-level nonthermal
    effects have an impact on human health. Consequently, the EPA
    (1986) concludes that the data are insufficient to assess the
    adversity and human health implications of effects observed for
    whole-body average SAR below 1 W/kg. However, in light of the SAR
    values for humans exposed to RFR from GWEN (less than 0.0000001
    W/kg for LF and 0.0001 W/kg for UHF), nonthermal effects are
    extremely unlikely.
       A degree of uncertainty exists in extrapolating findings on
    animals to humans because of differences in species, exposure
    frequencies, and internal distribution of absorbed energy
    (Heynick and Polson 1983; Heynick 1986). There is very little
    information on RF effects in humans and limited data on
    responses of animals at frequencies above 10 GHz and below 10
    MHz. However, the use of SAR as an index of exposure has allowed
    excellent extrapolation of effects across frequencies, and it is
    reasonable to assume that would also be applicable for GWEN
    frequencies.
       The health effects related to exposure to RFR have been the
    subject of continuing research for about 30 years, and an
    estimated 8,000 papers on RFR bioeffects have been published.
    Over the past decade great advances have been made in
    correlating the observation of effects (or lack thereof) with
    the SAR. Although SAR is associated with energy deposition, and
    frequently only with thermalization of the RFR energy in tissue,
    it also defines the fields existing within the tissues, and is a
    useful measure when discussing both thermal and nonthermal
    effects.
       Research papers cover a wide range of general topics in the
    biological sciences. These include epidemiologic studies of
    humans; the possibility of RFR exposure causing cancer or birth
    defects, effects on the eye, the nervous system, behavior,
    hormone-secreting systems in mammals, and the immune system;
    and general biochemical and physiological effects (Heynick and
    Polson 1986; Heynick 1986; Polk and Postow 1986). The interested
    reader is referred to these publications for more specific
    details of representative papers under each biological topic.
    The following discussions summarize those reviews.
       The discussion of effects due to absorbed energy is in
    reference to RFR in general. Most of the studies were at UHF and,
    therefore, would be applicable to GWEN UHF exposure. The SAR for
    GWEN exposure would be several orders of magnitude below the SARs
    associated with any reported effects. Therefore, it would be
    very unlikely that these effects would result from GWEN UHF
    exposure. Although none of the studies were conducted at LF,
    assessment of GWEN LF exposure can be made by comparing the GWEN
    SAR with the SARs reported in the studies. Since GWEN LF exposure
    would be many orders of magnitude below SARs associated with
    reported effects, the possibility that there would be any
    effects would be very remote.
       _Epidemiologic_Studies_. Although there are relatively few
    epidemiologic studies, those that have been performed have
    included several hundreds of thousands of individuals. None of
    the studies offers clear evidence of detrimental effects
    associated with exposure of the general population to RFR.
    However, findings of studies performed in the Soviet Union
    suggest that occupational exposure to UHF RFR at average power
    densities of less than 1 mw/cm2 does result in various
    symptoms (which they lump together as "microwave syndrome")
    but this is generally not recognized in western medical
    practice. The SARs associated with GWEN LF exposure, at
    frequencies 1,000 to 10,000 times lower than UHF, would be many
    orders of magnitude lower. Thus, even if one accepted the
    Soviet findings for UHF frequencies, the likelihood of such
    effects at GWEN frequencies and power intensities is remote.
    Collectively, the results of the epidemiologic studies do not
    provide evidence of the likelihood of any hazard to the general
    population from exposure to RFR from GWEN. Exposure to GWEN UHF
    would be at power densities of 0.001 mW/cm2 or less (see section
    4.11.1.2) which would be two to three orders of magnitude below
    the power densities of the observations in the Soviet studies.
       _Cancer_. One frequently expressed concern about RFR is that
    it may cause mutations or cancer. Several studies regarding the
    possible mutagenic effects of RFR have been done on bacteria,
    yeast, and fruit flies. These studies failed to demonstrate
    mutagenic effects that could be attributed to RFR exposure.
    Other studies using mice and rats also have failed to provide
    evidence of mutagenic effects. Studies on the general health or
    the occurrence of cancer in exposed animals have generally
    yielded negative results. Extrapolation of these animal studies
    to humans indicates that the SAR associated with human exposure
    to GWEN RFR is most unlikely to cause mutagenic effects or to
    cause cancer.
       _Birth_Defects_. Birth defects (technically, teratogenesis)
    and developmental abnormalities after birth are always of public
    concern, especially because, in a few cases, specific (non-RFR)
    agents have been shown to cause such effects. Birth defects and
    developmental abnormalities also occur naturally at a low rate in
    most animal species. Teratogenuc studies associated with RFR have
    used a variety of animal models. The results indicate that a
    threshold of heat induction or  temperature increase must be
    exceeded before teratogenic effects are produced. For the SARs
    associated with human exposure to GWEN RFR, there would be no
    detectable heating, so birth defects would be extremely unlikely.
       _Cataracts_. It has been asserted in newspapers and other
    popular media that microwaves potentially cause cataracts.
    Scientific studies have indicated that microwaves can cause
    cataracts in experimental animals, but only if incident
    continuous-wave power densities are high, approximately 150
    mw/cm2 or greater. Under such conditions of frequency and power
    density, local SARs in the eye can be so great that significant
    temperature rises occur. Such effects also appear to have a
    threshold; if a critical temperature is not exceeded within the
    eye for a certain duration, no cataracts are formed. Recent
    studies also indicate effects on corneal endothelium in the eyes
    of monkeys exposed to microwaves, but there is no evidence that
    such effects could occur at SARs associated with exposure to
    GWEN RFR.
       _Nervous_System_Effects_. Several types of studies have been
    conducted regarding the effects of RFR on the nervous system of
    animals. U.S. scientists consider most effects of RFR on the
    nervous system to be indirect results of other physiological
    interactions, with the possible exception of alterations of
    calcium-ion binding in brain tissue. This phenomenon occurs with
    amplitude-modulated waveforms for a wide range of carrier
    frequencies from extremely low frequency to UHF. However, there
    is no evidence that it occurs at power densities below 0.1
    mw/cm2, and even if it did, there is no indication that it is in
    any way associated with adverse health effects. Other observed
    nervous-system effects have included: alteration of the
    permeability of the blood-brain barrier, but consistent data
    exist only for local SARs that are sufficient to cause heating;
    alterations in and damage to some regions of the brains of
    hamsters and rats (but not of squirrel monkeys), but, again,
    resulting from thermal processes; and alterations of
    electroencephalograms (electrical activity of the brain) in
    animals, but only when in-dwelling  electrodes were used. The
    last effect is the only one that could perhaps apply to the GWEN
    system. With modern advances in medical technology, it is
    becoming more common (though still rare in terms of absolute
    numbers) for patients with certain neurological problems to have
    metal electrodes implanted in their brains. Such persons could
    be affected by fields within the immediate vicinity of the GWEN
    transmitters. However, there are no known reports of anyone
    having been affected by RFR as a result of any surgical
    implantation to correct neurological problems. All other effects
    on the nervous system are unlikely to occur at the SARs
    associated with human exposure to GWEN RFR.
       _Behavioral_Effects_. Many experimental studies have been
    conducted on the effects of RFR on animal behavior. The results
    of such studies are considered particularly important in the
    Soviet Union, where they are often held to be evidence of direct
    effects of RFR on the central nervous system (CNS). U.S.
    scientists do not always agree that behavioral effects
    necessarily imply direct effects on the CNS. However, as
    behavioral effects are very sensitive indicators of biological
    function, they receive appropriate attention in both eastern
    European and western countries. Representative behavioral
    studies (Heynick and Polson 1986; Heynick 1986) include studies
    of effects on reflex activity, RFR perception, effects of RFR on
    learning and on performance of trained tasks, interactive
    effects of RFR and drugs on behavior, and behavioral
    thermoregulation. Studies have been conducted on mice, rats,
    rabbits, squirrel monkeys, rhesus monkeys, and humans.
       Soviet claims of effects at low-power densities (equal to or
    less than 0.5 mw/cm2) for long-term exposures have not been
    duplicated in similar studies by U.S. researchers. The validity
    of the Soviet claims is difficult to assess because of lack of
    detail in the reports of the experiments. It is very likely that
    behavioral effects could have been seen if in-dwelling
    electrodes were used for the animals involved in the Soviet
    studies, but it is unknown whether they were.
       RFR is capable of producing alterations in a wide variety of
    behaviors of various animals. Except for pulsed RFR, average
    power densities required to modify behavior are almost all at
    levels of approximately 5 mw/cm2 and above, with corresponding
    SARs of approximately 1 W/kg and above. Perception of pulsed
    RFR (i.e., microwave hearing) is a peak-power phenomenon, not an
    average-power one, and can thereby modify behavior.
       It is difficult to relate most of the behavioral studies in
    animals to humans. All behavioral studies are directly relevant
    to the nature of the species being studied, and the conclusions
    of a given study do not readily transfer to other species.
    Because the SARs needed to cause reported effects are so high,
    these studies provide no evidence that exposure to RFR at the
    levels that would be emitted outside the fence at GWEN RNs
    would likely have adverse effects on human behavior.
       _Endocrine_System_Effects_. Exposure of animals to RFR has
    produced somewhat inconsistent effects on the hormone-secreting
    (endocrine) system of mammals. In general, the effects appear to
    be related to either the heat load associated with the RFR or the
    stress induced in the animals by the RFR or, possibly, other
    experimental circumstances. Some effects also appear to be
    related to alteration of the circadian rhythm by RFR. There do
    not appear to be any effects clearly demonstrated to be
    associated with nonthermogenic stimulation of the endocrine
    system or the associated parts of the CNS.
       Because the reported effects of RFR on the endocrine systems
    of animals are largely ascribable to increased thermal burdens
    and stresses engendered by the experimental situation, there is
    no evidence that such effects would occur in humans exposed to
    the RFR from the GWEN transmitter outside the fence because of
    the extremely low SARs involved.
       _Immune_System_Effects_. The accumulation of reports to date
    indicates that RFR has definite effects on the immune system of
    mammals. Most of the reported effects were detected after
    exposure at SARs about 4 W/kg and higher; a few have been
    detected following exposure at SARs as low as 0.2 W/kg. In some
    cases, the effects that were observed at higher power densities
    were not found at lower power densities, indicating the
    possibility of a threshold power density. In most studies, the
    mechanisms for the effects seen were not investigated, and the
    various reports are somewhat inconsistent. The situation is
    complicated by the complexity of the immune system and the
    variety of test procedures used.
       The existing evidence indicates that some of the
    immune-system effects are probably related to the effect of RFR
    on the endocrine system resulting from adaptation to stress.
    The mechanisms and significance of such effects are not yet
    understood, and individual findings have not been independently
    verified. There is currently no evidence that relates RFR
    effects on animals' immune systems to effects on the immune
    system of humans chronically exposed to the levels of RFR that
    would be experienced outside thc fenced area of a GWEN RN. In
    addition, because of the extremely small SARs involved, there is
    no evidence to suggest that such effects would be hazardous to
    human health.
       _Biochemical_and_Physiological_Effects_. The literature on
    biochemical and physiological effects associated with RFR is
    extensive. Many of the reported effects are associated with
    other events (e.g., changes in hormonal levels or stress
    adaptation), and some do not have clear medical significance.
       The thermal basis for most of the reported physiological and
    biochemical effects of exposure of intact animals to RFR is
    evident. The investigations with nonhuman primates are most
    significant with respect to possible hazards of human exposure
    to RFR because the anatomies and physiological characteristics
    of primates are closest to those of humans. The results with
    rhesus monkeys showed that exposure to RFR at frequencies in the
    range of 3 to 30 MHz at average-power densities of about 100
    mw/cm2 were well within the thermoregulatory capabilities of
    this species. Also noteworthy were the negative findings of
    blood-chemistry assays performed on rhesus monkeys one to two
    years after exposures to such high-power densities. The
    thermoregulatory system of squirrel monkeys were also observed
    to effectively compensate for RFR exposure.
       The investigations involving exposure of intact, smaller
    species of mammals to RFR have yielded both positive and
    negative results. Some of the positive findings are also clearly
    due to the additional thermal burden posed by the RFR. Other
    results, showing decreased food intake and lower blood glucose
    levels in rats, indicate the existence of a SAR threshold of
    about 1 W/kg or higher for such effects.
       One physiological concern is whether exposure of humans to
    RFR can affect their heart function. In early work on this
    subject with excised turtle, frog, and rat hearts, various
    investigators reported RFR-induced decreases and/or increases
    in heart rate, depending on average power densities. Decreases
    in heart rate were reported for the lower range of power
    densities used. The lowest SAR at which heart rate decreases were
    observed in the isolated turtle heart was 1.5 W/kg. Some recent
    work showed no RFR-induced changes in beat rate or contractile
    force in isolated atria of rat hearts exposed to 2.45 GHz RFR at
    2 or 10 W/kg.
       SAR-dependent changes in heart-beat rate in intact animals
    were also reported. The results indicate the existence of a
    threshold between 4.5 and 6.5 W/kg, many orders of magnitude
    higher than could occur outside the fence of a GWEN RN.
       Thus, in general, it is very improbable that physiological or
    biochemical effects would occur from exposure to RFR from GWEN
    transmitters at the levels that would be experienced outside the
    fenced area of an RN.
       _Conclusion_. Most U.S. experiments with animals that yielded
    recognizable and repeatable effects of exposure to RFR were
    performed at whole-body average SARs of more than about 1 watt
    per kilogram (W/kg). Such effects are thermal, in the sense that
    the RFR energy is absorbed by the organism as widely distributed
    heat that increases the whole-body temperature, or as internally
    localized heat that is biologically significant even when
    natural heat-exchange and thermoregulatory mechanisms are
    functioning. The existence of threshold incident average power
    densities has been experimentally demonstrated for some effects
    and postulated for others. Exposure to RFR at average power
    densities exceeding the threshold for a specific effect for a
    few minutes to a few hours (depending on the value) can cause
    irreversible tissue alterations. The heat produced by
    indefinitely long or chronic exposures at power densities well
    below the threshold is not accumulated because its rate of
    production is readily compensated for by either heat-exchange
    processes, thermoregulation, or both. Most investigations
    involving chronic exposures of mammals yielded either no
    effects or reversible, noncumulative behavioral or physiological
    effects for average power densities exceeding whole-body SARs
    of 1 W/kg. In the few cases in which irreversible adverse
    effects of exposure were found, these effects were absent for
    whole-body SARs below 1 W/kg. Whole-body SARs resulting from
    exposure to RFR at a GWEN RN would be below 0.0000001 W/kg
    outside of the 4-foot circular fence.

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