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         MindNet Journal - Vol. 1, No. 62d * [Part 4 of 4 parts]
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         V E R I C O M M / MindNet         "Quid veritas est?"
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    Editor: Mike Coyle

    Assistant Editor: Rick Lawler

    Research: Darrell Bross

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    [Continued from part 3]

    51. A positive relationship between the P300 and the
    consolidation of memory codes (as a typical hippocampal function)
    was demonstrated by some of those studies reporting a Dm-effect.
    Several studies have shown that ERPs recorded during the encoding
    of words (or pictures) that were later remembered were more
    positive than ERPs to words (or pictures) that were not
    remembered (Sanquist et al., 1980; Karis et al., 1982, 1984;
    Johnson, et al., 1985; Neville et al., 1986; Fabiani et al.,
    1986; Paller et al., 1987; Fabiani et al., 1990; Friedman, 1990a,
    b; and see also the indirect evidence provided by e.g., Noldy et
    al., 1990; and the review in Paller, 1993). This difference in
    ERPs during encoding which was found within the region of the
    typical P300 or a late positive component was termed "Dm" (for
    Difference based on later memory performance; Paller et al.,
    1987) or Dm-effect. When reviewing this research it is
    interesting to see that particularly the P300 does not reflect
    the processing of semantic information (i.e., the encoding of a
    stimulus per se) but instead the processing of episodic
    information. Results reported by Karis et al. (1984) and Fabiani
    et al. (1986, 1990) are in good agreement with this
    interpretation. They presented subjects with different series of
    words which had to be recalled immediately after a list was
    presented and found that words later recalled elicited larger
    P300s than words not recalled. In addition, Fabiani et al. (1990)
    were able to demonstrate that this relationship between the P300
    amplitude and episodic memory performance holds only if subjects
    use rote learning (which is based on the encoding of contextual
    and thus episodic information) but not if subjects use semantic
    encoding strategies (such as organizing the words into meaningful
    sentences). Thus, the Dm (with respect to the P300) most likely
    reflects episodic encoding processes and as a result, this type
    of Dm-effect which is based on the P300 component becomes the
    weaker; the more semantic encoding processes predominate.

    52. Electrophysiological recordings with electrodes implanted in
    the hippocampus have not provided clear evidence for the view
    that the P300 is generated in the hippocampus (e.g., Polich &
    Squire, 1993; and the literature reviewed in this article).
    Because theta is generated in the septum and because other parts
    of the limbic system also exhibit theta frequency, the crucial
    question is, whether or not it can be demonstrated that theta
    activity (or the P300) varies as a function of (episodic) memory
    performance and that at the same time the hippocampus is involved
    in the modification of theta activity (or the P300).

    53. An interesting study by Smith and Halgren (1989) who focused
    on the word repetition effect in a recognition task provided
    evidence for this view. It is well known that old words (repeated
    words) elicit a larger P300 than new words (e.g., Sanquist et
    al., 1980; and Johnson et al., 1985). Smith and Halgren (1989)
    repeated the targets in the recognition task in each of a set of
    nine blocks of 20 words (consisting of 10 targets and 10 new
    words) and found that the amplitude difference between repeated
    and new words did not change with the number of repetitions
    (i.e., the number of blocks). Recognition performance, of course,
    increased with the number of blocks, but this increase in
    performance was not reflected by the amplitude differences
    between the repeated and not repeated words which remained
    constant with the number of repetitions. Because these results
    were found for normal subjects as well as for patients with
    unilateral (left or right) anterior temporal lobectomy, it was
    concluded that the hippocampus is not involved in the increase of
    recognition performance over different blocks, which can be
    explained as an increase in implicit memory performance. Most
    important, however, the baseline recognition performance was
    significantly lower for the patients with a left temporal
    lobectomy who from the very beginning also failed to show a
    significant P300 amplitude difference between new and old words.
    This latter result is consistent with the hypothesis that the
    hippocampus (in the dominant left hemisphere) might be capable of
    modifying a P300 that reflects explicit, episodic memory
    performance.

    VII. CONCLUDING REMARKS

    54. The main purpose of this article is to encourage an
    integrative and interdisciplinary view on memory processes. As a
    result of this attempt, new experiments can be performed that
    will be capable of critically evaluating the proposed hypotheses.
    A promising empirical approach would be to analyze event-related
    shifts in EEG power within the theta and alpha bands in amnesic
    subjects who perform different types of memory tasks.

    55. If it is true that oscillations are the mandatory basis for
    information transmission in the cortex and possibly in the entire
    brain, a better understanding of the nature of oscillations would
    be essential for an integrative view in cognitive neuroscience.
    For cognitive psychology this finally would mean to describe
    cognitive processes in terms of oscillations and for cognitive
    psychophysiology this would mean to focus primarily on the
    analysis of certain, carefully selected frequency bands in
    addition to the study of event-related potentials.

    ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

    This research was supported by the Austrian "Fonds zur Foerderung
    der wissenschaftlichen Forschung", Project S-4904 and Project
    P-10235.

    I wish to thank Stevan Harnad and anonymous reviewers for their
    helpful suggestions. In particular, I am grateful for the
    insightful critical comments of Niels Birbaumer on an earlier
    draft of this manuscript.

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